The Patriotic War of 1812, the reasons for which was Napoleon’s desire to dominate the world, capturing all the states, became a significant milestone in the history of our country. At that time, only Russia and England continued to maintain independence from all European countries. Napoleon was particularly irritated in relation to the Russian state, which continued to oppose the expansion of its aggression and systematically violate
Entering the confrontation with the French, Russia acted as an intercessor of the monarchical states of Europe.
Been preparing for war since 1810. Russia and France understood that military action was inevitable.
The French emperor sent troops into the creation of weapons depots there. Russia felt threatened and began to increase the size of the army in the western provinces.
The Patriotic War of 1812 began with the invasion of Napoleon on June 12. The 600,000th French army crossed the Neman.
Along with this, the Russian government developed a plan to counter the invaders. Created by theorist Ful. According to the plan, the entire Russian army was made up of three parts. Bagration, Tormasov, Barclay de Tolly were chosen as commanders. According to Ful, the Russian troops were supposed to retreat to their fortified positions systematically and, united, to repulse the onslaught of the French. However, the Patriotic War of 1812 began to develop in a different way. The Russian army was retreating, and Napoleon was approaching Moscow. Despite the resistance of the Russians, the French soon found themselves near the capital.
The situation, which began to take shape, required immediate action. The post of commander of the Russian troops on August 20 took Kutuzov.
The general battle took place on August 26 near the village of battle). This battle was the most bloody one-day battle in the history of the country. There was no winner in this battle. But there were no losers either. However, assessing the situation, Kutuzov after the battle decides to retreat. It was decided to give Moscow without a fight. All residents were removed from the capital, and the city itself was burned.
On September 2, Napoleonic soldiers entered Moscow. The French commander assumed that the Muscovites would bring him the keys to the city. But the city was burned, all the barns with ammunition and provisions burned down.
The next battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. Fierce battles were fought, during which the French army wavered. Napoleon had to retreat on the same road along which he had come (along Staraya Smolenskaya).
The following battles took place near Krasnoye, Vyazma, near the crossing of the Berezina. The Russian army drove the French from their land. Thus, the Napoleonic invasion of Russia ended.
The Patriotic War of 1812 ended on December 23, about which Alexander 1 signed a manifesto. However, the Napoleonic campaign continued. Battles were fought until 1814.
World War 1812. Results
Military action at that time became Russia. This war caused a surge in the national consciousness of the Russian people. Absolutely the entire population participated in the battle with Napoleon, regardless of age.
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 confirmed Russian heroism and courage. This battle gave the stories of great people: Kutuzov, Raevsky, Bagration, Tormasov and others whose names are forever in history. The war with the Napoleonic army was the clearest example of the sacrifice of the people in the name of saving their homeland.
The war of Russia for freedom and independence against the aggression of France and its allies.
It was the result of deep political contradictions between France, Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte, who aspired to European domination, and the Russian Empire, opposing its political and territorial claims.
From France, the war was coalitional in nature. Only the Rhine Union put 150 thousand people in the Napoleonic army. Of the foreign contingents, 8 army corps were composed. In the Great Army there were about 72 thousand Poles, over 36 thousand Prussians, about 31 thousand Austrians, a significant number of representatives of other European states. The total number of the French army was about 1200 thousand people. More than half of it was intended to invade Russia.
By 1.6.1812, the Napoleonic invasion forces included the imperial guard, 12 infantry corps, cavalry reserve (4 corps), artillery and engineering parks - a total of 678 thousand people and about 2.8 thousand guns.
Napoleon I used the Duchy of Warsaw as a springboard for an attack. His strategic plan was to quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army in a general battle, take Moscow and impose a peace treaty on the terms of France on the Russian Empire. The enemy invasion forces were deployed in 2 echelons. The first echelon consisted of 3 groups (total 444 thousand people, 940 guns), located between the rivers Neman and Vistula. The 1st group (left wing troops, 218 thousand people, 527 guns) under the direct command of Napoleon I concentrated at the line of Elbing (now Elblag), Thorn (now Torun) for the offensive through Kovno (now Kaunas) to Vilna (now Vilnius) . The 2nd group (Gen. E. Beauharnais; 82 thousand people, 208 guns) was intended for an offensive in the strip between Grodno and Kovno in order to separate the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies. The 3rd group (under the command of Napoleon I’s brother J. Bonaparte; right wing troops, 78 thousand people, 159 guns) had the task of moving the Warsaw 2nd Russian Army from Warsaw to Grodno to facilitate the advance of the main forces . These troops were to envelop and destroy in parts the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies. On the left wing, the invasion of the 1st group of forces was provided by the Prussian corps (32 thousand people) of Marshal J. MacDonald. On the right wing, the invasion of the 3rd group of forces was provided by the Austrian corps (34 thousand people) Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg. In the rear, between the rivers Wisla and the Oder, there remained troops of the 2nd echelon (170 thousand people, 432 guns) and a reserve (corps of Marshal P. Augereau and other troops).
Russian Empire after a series of anti-Napoleonic wars to the beginning World War II remained in international isolation, experiencing the same financial and economic difficulties. In the two pre-war years, its expenditures on the needs of the army amounted to more than half of the state budget. Russian troops at the western borders had about 220 thousand people and 942 guns. They were deployed in 3 groups: the 1st Infernal Army (infantry general; 6 infantry, 2 cavalry and 1 Cossack corps; about 128 thousand people, 558 guns) were the main forces and were located between the Russians (now Raseiniai, Lithuania) and Lida The 2nd Western Army (general from infantry; 2 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; about 49 thousand people, 216 guns) concentrated between the rivers Neman and the Bug; The 3rd Western Army (cavalry general A.P. Tormasov; 3 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; 43 thousand people, 168 guns) was deployed in the Lutsk region. In the Riga area there was a separate building (18.5 thousand people) of Lieutenant General I.N. Essen. The nearest reserves (corps of Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky and Lieutenant General F.F. Ertel) were in the areas of the cities of Toropets and Mozyr. In the south, in Podolia, the Danube army was concentrated (about 30 thousand people) Admiral P.V. Chichagov. All the armies were led by the emperor, who was with his main apartment at the 1st Western Army. The commander in chief was not appointed, but Barclay de Tolly, being the Minister of War, had the right to give orders on behalf of the emperor. Russian armies stretched out on the front with a length of over 600 km, and the main enemy forces - 300 km. This put Russian troops in a difficult position. By the beginning of the enemy invasion, Alexander I accepted the plan proposed by the military adviser - the Prussian general K. Ful. According to his plan, the 1st Western Army, having retreated from the border, was to take refuge in a fortified camp, and the 2nd Western Army to go to the flank and rear of the enemy.
According to the nature of military events in World War II, 2 periods are distinguished. The 1st period - from the invasion of the French troops on June 12 (24) to October 5 (17) - includes defensive operations, the flank Tarutin march of the Russian troops, their preparation for the offensive and partisan operations on enemy communications. The 2nd period - from the transition of the Russian army to the counteroffensive on October 6 (18) to the defeat of the enemy and the complete liberation of Russian land on December 14 (26).
The pretext for the attack on the Russian empire was allegedly the violation by Alexander I of the main, according to Napoleon I, provision - "to be in eternal alliance with France and in the war with England", manifested in sabotage of the continental blockade by the Russian Empire. On June 10 (22) Napoleon I officially declared war on Russia through the ambassador in St. Petersburg J. A. Loriston, and on June 12 (24) the French army began crossing the Neman over 4 bridges (near Kovno and other cities). Having received news of the invasion of French troops, Alexander I made an attempt to resolve the conflict peacefully, urging the French emperor to "withdraw his troops from Russian territory." However, Napoleon I rejected this offer.
Under the onslaught of superior enemy forces, the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat inland. The 1st Western Army left Vilna and retreated to the Drissky camp (near the town of Driss, now Verkhnedvinsk, Belarus), widening the gap with the 2nd Western Army to 200 km. The main enemy forces rushed into it on June 26 (July 8), occupying Minsk and creating a threat of defeating the Russian armies individually. The 1st and 2nd Western armies, intending to unite, departed in convergent directions: the 1st Western Army from Drissa via Polotsk to Vitebsk (the corps of the Lieutenant General was left to cover the Petersburg direction, since November General Infantry P. Kh. Wittgenstein), and the 2nd Western Army from Slonim to Nesvizh, Bobruisk, Mstislavl.
The war stirred up the whole of Russian society: peasants, merchants, raznochintsy. By mid-summer, self-defense detachments began to spontaneously form in the occupied territory to protect their villages from French raids. foragers and looters (see Looting). Having appreciated the importance, the Russian military command took measures to expand it and organize it. To this end, in the 1st and 2nd Western armies, army partisan detachments were created on the basis of regular troops. In addition, according to the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I of July 6 (18) in Central Russia and the Volga region, recruitment was carried out in civil uprising. Its creation, acquisition, financing and supply was supervised by Special to. Significant contribution to the fight against foreign invaders made orthodox Churchwho called on the people to protect their state and religious shrines, raised about 2.5 million rubles for the needs of the Russian army (from the church treasury and as a result of donations from parishioners).
On July 8 (20), the French occupied Mogilev and prevented the Russian armies from uniting in the Orsha region. Only thanks to persistent rear-guard battles and maneuver did the Russian armies join forces near Smolensk on July 22 (August 3). By this time, Wittgenstein’s corps had retreated to the line north of Polotsk and, having constrained the enemy’s forces, weakened its main group. The 3rd Western Army, after the battles of Kobrin on July 15 (27), and on July 31 (August 12) near Gorodechnaya (now both cities are in the Brest region, Belarus), where it inflicted heavy damage on the enemy, defended on the river. Styr.
The outbreak of the war upset the strategic plan of Napoleon I. The great army lost up to 150 thousand people killed, wounded, sick and deserters. Her fighting efficiency and discipline began to decline, the pace of attack slowed down. Napoleon I was forced on July 17 (29) to give an order to stop his army for 7-8 days in the area from Velizh to Mogilev for rest and in anticipation of the approach of reserves and rear. Submitting to the will of Alexander I, who demanded vigorous action, the military council of the 1st and 2nd Western armies decided to take advantage of the dispersed position of the enemy and break the front of his main forces with a counterattack in the direction of Rudnya and Porechye (now the city of Demidov). On July 26 (August 7), Russian troops launched a counterattack, but due to poor organization and inconsistency, it did not bring the expected results. The battles that began near Rudnya and Porechye were used by Napoleon I for the sudden crossing of his troops across the Dnieper, threatening to capture Smolensk. The troops of the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat to Smolensk, so that before the enemy went to the Moscow road. During the battle of Smolensk in 1812, the Russian armies with active defense and skillful maneuver of reserves managed to avoid the general battle imposed by Napoleon I under unfavorable conditions and retreat to Dorogobuzh on the night of August 6 (18). The enemy continued to attack Moscow.
The length of the retreat caused a murmur among the soldiers and officers of the Russian army, and general discontent in Russian society. The departure from Smolensk exacerbated the hostile relationship between P.I. Bagration and M. B. Barclay de Tolly. This forced Alexander I to establish the post of Commander-in-Chief of all the existing Russian armies and to appoint the Infantry General (since August 19 (31) General Field Marshal) M.I. Kutuzov - the head of the St. Petersburg and Moscow militias. Kutuzov arrived in the army on August 17 (29) and assumed command.
Having found a position near Tsarev Zaimishch (now a village in the Vyazemsky district of the Smolensk region), where Barclay de Tolly intended to give the enemy a disadvantage on August 19 (31), and army forces were insufficient, Kutuzov led the troops to several eastward crossings and stopped in front of Mozhaisk, near the village Borodino, on the field, which allowed the favorable position of troops and block the Old and New Smolensk roads. Arriving reserves under the command of a general from infantry, the Moscow and Smolensk militias allowed to bring the forces of the Russian army to 132 thousand people and 624 guns. Napoleon I had the forces of about 135 thousand people and 587 guns. None of the parties achieved their goals: Napoleon I was unable to defeat the Russian army, Kutuzov - to block the path of the Great Army to Moscow. The Napoleonic army, having lost about 50 thousand people (according to French data, over 30 thousand people) and most of the cavalry, was seriously weakened. Kutuzov, having received information about the losses of the Russian army (44 thousand people), refused to continue the battle and gave the order to retreat.
Retreating to Moscow, he hoped to partially make up for the losses incurred and give a new battle. But the position chosen by the cavalry general L. L. Bennigsen at the walls of Moscow was extremely unprofitable. Given the fact that the first actions of the partisans showed high efficiency, Kutuzov ordered to take them under the control of the General Staff of the army, entrusting their leadership to the duty general of the General Staff. P.P. Konovnitsyna. At a military council in the village of Fili (now within Moscow), September 1 (13), Kutuzov ordered Moscow to leave without a fight. Together with the troops, most of the population left the city. On the very first day of the French entry into Moscow, fires began, which lasted until September 8 (20) and devastated the city. While the French were in Moscow, partisan detachments surrounded the city with an almost continuous movable ring, preventing the enemy's foragers from further away from it further 15-30 km. The most active were the actions of the army partisan detachments, I. S. Dorokhov, A. N. Seslavin and A. S. Figner.
Leaving Moscow, Russian troops retreated along the Ryazan road. After 30 km, they crossed the Moscow River and turned west. Then they crossed the forced march onto the Tula Road and on September 6 (18) concentrated in the Podolsk area. After 3 days, they were already on the Kaluga road and on September 9 (21) they camped at the village of Krasnaya Pakhra (from 1.7.2012 within Moscow). Having made 2 more transitions, Russian troops concentrated on September 21 (October 3) at the Tarutino village (now the village of Zhukovsky district, Kaluga region). As a result of a skillfully organized and conducted march maneuver, they broke away from the enemy and took an advantageous position for a counteroffensive.
The active participation of the population in the partisan movement turned the war from the confrontation of regular armies into a popular war. The main forces of the Great Army and all its communications from Moscow to Smolensk were threatened by attacks by Russian troops. The French lost their freedom of maneuver and activity in action. For them, roads were closed in the province south of Moscow, not ravaged by war. The "small war" launched by Kutuzov further complicated the position of the enemy. The bold operations of the army and peasant partisan detachments disrupted the supply of French troops. Realizing the critical situation, Napoleon I sent General J. Loriston to the headquarters of the Russian commander in chief with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected them, saying that the war was just beginning and would not end until the enemy was completely expelled from Russia.
The Russian army, located in the Tarutin camp, reliably covered the south of the country: Kaluga with military reserves concentrated there, Tulu and Bryansk with weapons and foundries. At the same time, reliable communications were provided with the 3rd Western and Danube armies. In the Tarutino camp, the troops were reorganized, understaffed (their number was increased to 120 thousand people), equipped with weapons, ammunition and food. There were now 2 times more artillery than the enemy, cavalry was 3.5 times superior in numbers. Provincial militias totaled 100 thousand people. They covered Moscow in a semicircle along the lines of Klin, Kolomna, Aleksin. Under Tarutin, M.I. Kutuzov developed a plan for encircling and defeating the Great Army between the Western Dvina and the Dnieper between the main forces of the army, the Danube Army P.V. Chichagov and the corps of P. Kh.
The first blow was struck on October 6 (18) against the vanguard of the French army on the Chernishnya river (Tarutino battle of 1812). The troops of Marshal I. Murat in this battle lost 2.5 thousand killed and 2 thousand prisoners. Napoleon I was forced to leave Moscow on October 7 (19), on October 10 (22) advanced groups of Russian troops entered it. The French lost about 5 thousand people and began to retreat along the Old Smolensk Road devastated by them. Tarutino battle and the battle of Maloyaroslavets marked a radical change in the war. The strategic initiative finally passed into the hands of the Russian command. Fighting Since that time, Russian troops and partisans have acquired an active character and included such methods of armed struggle as the parallel pursuit and encirclement of enemy troops. The pursuit was carried out in several directions: north of the Smolensk road, a detachment of Major General P.V. Golenishchev-Kutuzov was operating; along the Smolensk road - Cossack regiments of the general from the cavalry; south of the Smolensk road - the vanguard of M. A. Miloradovich and the main forces of the Russian army. Having overtaken the enemy’s rearguard near Vyazma, Russian troops defeated him on October 22 (November 3) - the French lost about 8.5 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, then in the battles of Dorogobuzh, near Dukhovshchina, near the village of Lyakhovo (now the Glinsky district of Smolenskaya region) - more than 10 thousand people.
The surviving part of the Napoleonic army retreated to Smolensk, but food supplies and reserves were not there. Napoleon I began to hastily withdraw his troops further. But in the battles of Krasnoye and then of Molodechno, Russian troops defeated the French. Scattered enemy units retreated to the river along the road to Borisov. The 3rd Western Army was there to join the corps of P. Kh. Wittgenstein. Her troops occupied Minsk on November 4 (16), and on November 9 (21) the army of P.V. Chichagov approached Borisov and after the battle with the detachment of General Y. Kh. Dombrovsky occupied the city and the right bank of the Berezina. After a stubborn battle with the French corps of Marshal L. Saint-Cyr, Wittgenstein’s corps captured Polotsk on October 8 (20). Having crossed the Western Dvina, Russian troops occupied Lepel (now Vitebsk region, Belarus) and defeated the French at Chashniki. With the approach of Russian troops to Berezina, a “bag” was formed in the Borisov area, in which the retreating French troops were surrounded. However, Wittgenstein’s indecision and Chichagov’s mistakes made it possible for Napoleon I to prepare the crossing of the Berezina and avoid the complete destruction of his army. Having reached Smorgon (now the Grodno region, Belarus), on November 23 (December 5) Napoleon I left for Paris, and the remains of his army were almost completely destroyed.
On December 14 (26), Russian troops occupied Bialystok and Brest-Litovsk (now Brest), completing the liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire. M.I. Kutuzov December 21, 1812 (January 2, 1813) in an order for the army congratulated the troops on the expulsion of the enemy from the borders of the country and called for "to complete the defeat of the enemy in his own fields."
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 preserved the independence of Russia, and the defeat of the Great Army not only dealt a crushing blow to the military power of Napoleonic France, but also played a decisive role in the liberation of a number of European states from French expansion, intensified the liberation struggle of the Spanish people, etc. As a result of the Russian army in 1813 -14 and the liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe, the Napoleonic Empire collapsed. The victory in World War II was also used to strengthen the autocracy both in the Russian Empire and in Europe. Alexander I headed the Holy Union created by European monarchs, whose activities were aimed at suppressing the revolutionary, republican and liberation movement in Europe. The Napoleonic army in Russia lost over 500 thousand people, all cavalry and almost all artillery (only the corps of J. MacDonald and K. Schwarzenberg survived); Russian troops - about 300 thousand people.
The Patriotic War of 1812 is notable for its large spatial scope, tension, and a variety of strategic and tactical forms of armed struggle. The military art of Napoleon I, superior to the military art of all the armies of Europe at that time, crashed in a clash with the Russian army. The Russian strategy has surpassed the Napoleonic strategy, designed for a short-term campaign. M.I. Kutuzov skillfully used the popular character of the war and, taking into account political and strategic factors, implemented his plan of struggle with the Napoleonic army. The experience of the Patriotic War contributed to the consolidation of the tactics of columns and the loose system in the operations of the troops, the increasing role of aimed fire, and the improvement of the interaction of infantry, cavalry and artillery; the form of organization of military units — divisions and corps — was firmly entrenched. The reserve has become an integral part of the battle formation, the role of artillery in battle has increased.
The Patriotic War of 1812 occupies an important place in the history of Russia. She demonstrated the unity of all classes in the fight against foreign countries. aggression, was the most important factor in the formation of Russian identity. of the people. Under the influence of the victory over Napoleon I, the ideology of the Decembrists began to take shape. The experience of the war was generalized in the works of domestic and foreign military historians, the patriotism of the Russian people and the army inspired the work of Russian writers, artists, composers. With the victory in World War II, the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, numerous churches throughout the Russian Empire; trophies were stored in the Kazan Cathedral. The events of World War II are captured in numerous monuments on the Borodino Field, in Maloyaroslavets and Tarutin, reflected in the triumphal arches in Moscow and St. Petersburg, paintings of the Winter Palace, the panorama of the Battle of Borodino in Moscow and others. A huge memoir has been preserved about the Patriotic War.
Additional literature:
Akhsharumov D.I. Description of the war of 1812, St. Petersburg, 1819;
Buturlin D.P. The history of the invasion of the Emperor Napoleon in Russia in 1812, 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1837-1838. Part 1-2;
Okunev N.A. The discussion of the great military operations, battles and battles that occurred during the invasion of Russia in 1812, 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1841;
Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky A.I. Description of the Patriotic War of 1812 3rd ed. St. Petersburg, 1843;
Bogdanovich M.I. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 according to reliable sources. St. Petersburg, 1859-1860. T. 1-3;
The Patriotic War of 1812: Materials of the Military Scientific Archive. Sep. 1-2. SPb., 1900-1914. [Vol. 1-22];
World War II and Russian society, 1812-1912. M., 1911-1912. T. 1-7;
The Great Patriotic War: 1812, St. Petersburg, 1912;
Zhilin P.A. The counteroffensive of the Russian army in 1812, 2nd ed. M., 1953;
he is. The death of the Napoleonic army in Russia. 2nd ed. M., 1974;
he is. Patriotic War of 1812 3rd ed. M., 1988;
M. I. Kutuzov: [Documents and materials]. M., 1954-1955. T. 4. Part 1-2;
1812: Sat articles. M., 1962;
Babkin V.I. Militia in the Patriotic War of 1812 M., 1962;
Beskrovny L.G. Patriotic War of 1812 M., 1962;
Korneychik E.I. Belarusian people in the Patriotic War of 1812 Minsk, 1962;
Sirotkin V.G. The duel of two diplomacy: Russia and France in the years 1801-1812. M., 1966;
he is. Alexander the First and Napoleon: a duel on the eve of the war. M., 2012;
Tartakovsky A.G. 1812 and Russian memoirs: the experience of source study. M., 1980;
Abalikhin B.S., Dunaevsky V.A. 1812 at the crossroads of the opinions of Soviet historians, 1917-1987. M., 1990;
1812 Memoirs of the soldiers of the Russian army: From the collection of the Department of Written Sources of the State Historical Museum. M., 1991;
Tarle E.V. Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812 M., 1992;
he is. 1812: Elected works. M., 1994;
1812 in the memoirs of contemporaries. M., 1995;
Gulyaev Yu.N., Sograev V.T. Field Marshal Kutuzov: [Historical and biographical essay]. M., 1995;
Russian archive: History of the Fatherland in the evidence and documents of the XVIII-XX centuries. M., 1996. Issue. 7;
Kircheisen F. Napoleon I: In 2 vol. M., 1997;
Chandler D. Napoleon's Military Campaigns: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Conqueror. M., 1999;
Sokolov O.V. Napoleon's army. SPb., 1999;
Shein I.A. The war of 1812 in Russian historiography. M., 2002.
Introduction
2. The course of events of the war
2.2 The beginning of hostilities
2.3 Borodino battle
Conclusion
List of references
Introduction
Relevance.The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the most outstanding events in the history of our country. The heroic struggle of the Russian people against Napoleon led his army to defeat, from which the sunset of Napoleonic power in Europe began.
The war of 1812 caused an unprecedented surge in national identity among the Russian people. Everyone defended their Fatherland: from small to large. By victory in this war, the Russian people confirmed their courage and their heroism, showed an example of self-sacrifice for the good of the Motherland.
There are many studies, both by domestic and foreign authors, devoted to the war of 1812, which indicates that the war of 1812 was not only of pan-European, but also world significance: the clash of two major powers - Russia and France - involved others in the war European states and led to the creation of a new system of international relations.
Thus, realizing the significance of the Patriotic War of 1812, which played a crucial role in the fate of the Russian people and Russia as a whole, the theme Our essay was "The Patriotic War of 1812".
Purpose:conduct a historical analysis of the main aspects of the Patriotic War of 1812: causes, course of events and consequences.
To achieve this goal, we are faced with the following tasks:
Consider the causes of the war of 1812.
To illuminate the course of battles.
Reveal the consequences of the war of 1812.
1. Background to the outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812
The main prerequisite for the outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination, the creator of the aggressive policy of which was Napoleon Bonaparte, who did not hide his claims to world domination: " Three more years, and I am the master of the whole world"(1, p. 477-503).
Napoleon Bonaparte, proving himself an outstanding military leader during the French Revolution and becoming emperor in 1804, was at the zenith of his power and glory by 1812. Almost all European powers (except England) by this time were either defeated by Napoleon or close to it (like Spain).
Napoleon set his ultimate task to crush the economic and political power of England, which was France's long-standing rival more economically developed than France. But in order to break England, Napoleon had to make the whole European continent dependent on himself. And only Russia remained on the path to achieving this goal.
Thus, by 1812, the fate of the peoples of Europe, including England, largely depended on Russia, on whether it would withstand the invasion of the French army unprecedented in scale.
The conflict between Russia and France over the continental blockade of England also contributed to the outbreak of war. The industrial bourgeoisie of France needed the complete crowding out of Great Britain from European markets. Under the terms of the Tilsit Peace Treaty of 1807, the Russian Empire needed to break off trade relations with England, but Russia did not adhere to the continental blockade, as this had a detrimental effect on the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner.
patriotic war Borodino battle
Due to the forced participation in the continental blockade of England, the volume of foreign trade of Russia for 1808-1812. decreased by 43%, in 1809 the budget deficit increased by almost 13 times compared with 1801. It went to the financial collapse of Russia. France could not compensate for this damage, since the economic ties between Russia and France were superficial, mainly the import of luxury goods (2, p. 27-50).
In addition, in August 1810, the French emperor raised duties on goods imported into France, which even worse affected Russia's foreign trade.
Due to the continental blockade, the Russian landowners and merchants closed their trade routes to the northern seas, as well as to the east and the Black Sea due to the Russian-Turkish war, and they could not pay taxes to the treasury, and this led to the financial collapse of Russia. To normalize foreign trade, Alexander I in December 1810 issued a prohibitive customs tariff, almost completely restricting the import of French goods.
Thus, the continental blockade was one of the main reasons for the outbreak of the war of 1812.
The forced international situation also contributed to the outbreak of war. The main contradictions in political issues between Russia and France were related to Polish and German issues: Napoleon created on the Polish lands belonging to Prussia the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which was a constant external threat to the Russian Empire; the essence of the German question was that Napoleon annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to France, which infringed on the dynastic interests of tsarism.
In addition, there was a clash of interests between Russia and France in the Middle East: the Russian Empire sought to seize Constantinople, and Napoleon, who wanted to keep Turkey as an opponent of Russia in the east, prevented this.
Thus, the main reasons for the contradictions between France and Russia, which gave rise to the war of 1812, were: economic difficulties that Russia encountered after being forced to participate in the continental blockade of England; political contradictions between France and Russia; the negative mood of court circles and the inflammatory anti-French activities of the City of London; Napoleon's aggressive policy is the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination.
2. The course of events of the war
2.1 Preparation for war, the characteristics of the military forces of France and Russia on the eve of the war
France was carefully preparing for war with Russia, as it recognized the strength and power of the enemy: Napoleon spent 100 million francs for military purposes; conducted an additional mobilization that increased his army by 250 thousand people (in total, Napoleon's army amounted to over 600 thousand soldiers and officers); the command staff of the army had combat experience: Marshals Davout, Ney and Murat; the headquarters worked uninterruptedly; troop control was well established; carefully studied the features of the theater of the upcoming battles; a strategic plan of the campaign was drawn up (with the whole mass of troops wedged between the Russian armies, surrounded each one individually and defeated in general battles as close to the western border as possible).
It is worth noting that Napoleon’s army also had its weaknesses: its tribal composition was detrimental: there were less than half the French, the majority were Germans, Poles, Italians, Dutch, porters, Portuguese, etc., many of whom hated Napoleon as an enslaver of their fatherland, were in the army under duress; they were alien to the causes of the war.
In addition to creating a well-armed and equipped army, Napoleon sought to isolate Russia politically, hoping that Russia would have to fight simultaneously on three fronts against five states: in the north against Sweden, in the west against France, Austria and Prussia, in the south against Turkey .
But he only managed to secure the support of Austria and Poland in the war against Russia, which were promised territorial acquisitions at the expense of Russian possessions. And with a series of trade privileges, Napoleon ensured that the United States declared war on England, in order to make it difficult to wage a struggle with France and assist Russia.
Sweden and Turkey did not succeed in creating a threat to Russia: in April 1812, Russia entered into a secret alliance with Sweden, and a month later signed a peace treaty with Turkey.
Thus, by the beginning of the war, Russia managed to secure its flanks. And besides, Austria and Prussia, forcibly dragged into the allies of France, reluctantly helped Napoleon, and were ready at the first convenient moment to switch over to the side of Russia (which subsequently happened).
In Russia, France was aware of the danger, and in St. Petersburg, intensive preparations for the upcoming war were also in full swing.
Ministry of War, under the leadership of MB Barclay de Tolly, in 1810, developed a program to re-equip the Russian army and strengthen the western borders of the empire (along the rivers Zapadnaya Dvina, Berezina and Dnieper), which, due to the difficult financial situation of Russia, was not implemented.
The problem of manning the Russian army occurred through an additional set of recruits from serfs, and thanks to the 25-year term of military service, but all this did not allow to have a sufficient number of trained reserves and during the war it was necessary to create militias that needed training and weapons. By the beginning of the war, the Russian army totaled 317 thousand soldiers.
The strategic plan of military operations began to be developed by Alexander I, Barclay de Tolly and the Prussian general Ful in secret as early as 1810, and was already being finalized during the course of hostilities.
By that time, there were also capable officers and talented military leaders in the Russian army who lived in the tradition of the military school of Generalissimo Suvorov - to win by a small number, skill and courage.
The strength and power of the Russian army, in contrast to the French, did not consist in its strength, but in its composition - it was a national army, more homogeneous and united; she was distinguished by a higher morale: the Russian soldier was a patriot, was ready to fight until the last breath for his land and for his faith.
The main problem of the Russian army was its small size compared to the French army and the feudal nature of its maintenance, training and command (the gap between the soldiers and the command staff, drill and stick discipline).
Napoleon’s army did not have significant quantitative and qualitative superiority in armament: the artillery and the fighting quality of the cavalry were approximately on the same level.
Thus, we see that France has thoroughly prepared for the war with Russia: it had a well-armed and equipped army, superior in size. Russia, aware of the impending attack of France, also made attempts to modernize and build up the Russian army.
Having studied the state of the military forces on the eve of the war, we see that Russia, losing France in the number, planning and organization of strategic deployment of troops, was not inferior to it in armament and combat training of soldiers, and in terms of morale of soldiers, their patriotic mood, was several times higher than the mood of French soldiers army.
.2 Commencement of hostilities
Without warning the outbreak of war, Napoleon’s army began crossing the Neman River, near Kovno, along the western border of Russia, on the night of June 12, 1812 and in the morning the vanguard of the French troops entered Kovno. Napoleon planned to defeat the Russian armies already in border battles, without delving into the boundless expanses of Russia.
The eastern coast of the Neman seemed uninhabited, since the main forces of the Russian troops (the army of Barclay de Tolly) were concentrated 100 km southeast of the enemy crossing point.
Upon learning of the advance of Napoleon’s army, Alexander 1 sent his Minister of Police Adjutant General A.D. Balashov to Napoleon with a proposal to begin negotiations on a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Napoleon received the ambassador in Vilna, occupied by the French army on the fourth day after crossing the Neman, and where there remained 18 days, waiting for suitable army units.
Upon learning of Napoleon's invasion, Barclay de Tolly led his army from Vilna to the Drissky camp, and sent a courier to Bagration with an order from Alexander I to retreat to Minsk to interact with the 1st Army.
Napoleon, went with the main forces behind Barclay, and so that Barclay and Bagration (1st and 2nd Army) could not unite, sent the corps of Marshal Dawa between them. But his hopes (imposing a battle, attacking the troops of the 1st Army in the Vilna region): Barclay, convinced of the weakness of his defensive fortifications, began to retreat to Smolensk to join the 2nd Army.
I army, under the command of Bagration, also began to move to Smolensk (via Slutsk, Bobruisk, crossed the Dnieper, Mstislavl) and on July 22 both Russian armies joined in Smolensk.
Thus, Napoleon’s plan to defeat the Russian troops collapsed one by one.
Learning about the connection of the 1st and 2nd Russian army near Smolensk, Napoleon tried to draw the Russians into the general battle for Smolensk, where he hoped to defeat both armies at once. To do this, he decided to bypass Smolensk and go to the rear of the Russian troops (the offensive began on August 1).
Napoleon moved the corps of Marshal Ney and the cavalry of Marshal Murat bypassing Smolensk, but the Russian troops of the 27th division D.P. Neverovsky, who met them at Krasny, stubbornly repulsed the enemy’s attacks, although they were squeezed into the enemy’s ring, but, having suffered heavy losses, they were able to break through and connect with the main army forces in Smolensk.
Corps N.N. Raevsky and D.S. Dokhturov defended the city from the enemy, but on the night of August 18, after blowing up the powder depots, they left Smolensk.
When the French troops entered Smolensk, only 135 thousand troops remained in their strike force. Marshal Murat advised Napoleon not to go any further. Bonaparte tried to negotiate peace with Alexander I, but his proposal remained unanswered, and wounded by the silence of the Russian Tsar, Napoleon ordered his army to march on Moscow in pursuit of the Russian armies. Napoleon hoped that if the Russians fought so desperately for Smolensk, then for the sake of Moscow they would definitely go to a general battle and let him end the war with their victory. But Barclay de Tolly gave the order to move troops inland.
Thus, the war began to take a protracted character, which Napoleon was afraid of, as his communications were stretched, losses in battles increased, losses from desertion, illnesses and looting, train convoys lagged, moreover, another coalition against France was formed at a fast pace, which included In addition to Russia, England, Sweden and Spain.
Losses in the French army grew both due to the active partisan movement and the resistance of local residents in response to the brutal looting of French soldiers: peasants burned food, drove cattle, leaving nothing to the enemy (2, p. 38). Public opinion condemned Barclay, who took the tactics of avoiding big battles with the French and retreated farther into the east of Russia (600 km). Therefore, they demanded the appointment of a new commander in chief, who would enjoy great confidence and authority - and on August 8, M.I. became the new commander in chief. Kutuzov, whom Alexander I did not like, but the nobility of both capitals unanimously called him a candidate.
Kutuzov took command in difficult conditions: 600 km deep into Russia was captured by the French, who surpassed the Russian troops in military force (the government of Alexander 1 did not fulfill his promises: 100 thousand recruits, and a people's militia of 100 thousand warriors, Kutuzov really could only get 15 thousand recruits and 26 thousand militias).
august Kutuzov arrived at the headquarters of the Russian army in Tsarevo-Zaimishte, and, adhering to the tactics of retreat, to maintain the combat effectiveness of the army, reversed the decision of Barclay de Tolly to give a general battle with Napoleon. The troops retreated to the village of Borodina, located 120 km west of Moscow, where the battle took place.
Kutuzov’s task was to suspend further advance of the enemy, and then to combine the efforts of all armies, including the Danube and the 3rd Western, launching an active offensive. The task was defined as the "salvation of Moscow" (2, p. 43).
Kutuzov’s choice of the Borodino position for a responsible battle is not accidental. He considered her the best, since it allowed the Russian troops to successfully conduct defensive operations (3, p. 82): the position blocked two roads to Moscow - Old Smolenskaya and New Smolenskaya; from the right flank (Barclay de Tolly), troops covered the Colocha River, the banks of which were steep and steep; hilly terrain with ravines made it possible to create strongholds at heights, establish artillery and hide part of its troops from the enemy; Alder and birch forests fringed the area from the south and east.
To improve the position, Kutuzov further strengthened it: on the right flank several loose shafts were erected and guns mounted on them; on the left flank, near the village of Semenovskaya, artificial earthen fortifications for artillery batteries were built. The nature of the terrain forced the French to attack Russian troops head-on, overcoming the steep banks of Kolochi, which would inevitably lead to large losses among the attackers.
Napoleon, who longed for a general battle from the first days of the war, did not think about possible failure and looked forward to the victory: "Here is the sun of Austerlitz!" (2, p. 43) (referring to the victory at Austerlitz).
He believed that having won the battle of Borodino, he would be able to dictate to Alexander 1 a victorious world.
.3 Battle of Borodino
The battle of Borodino was inevitable for many reasons:
Kutuzov fought because the retreating army wanted it;
public opinion would not forgive Kutuzov if he, without a decisive battle with the enemy, retreated to Moscow itself;
the battle of Borodino, Kutuzov hoped to bleed the enemy and deprive him of hope for an easy victory.
Napoleon, given his superiority in strength, hoped in a general battle to defeat the Russian army, force Alexander I to a forced peace and brilliantly end the next campaign, thereby proving his power to the whole world.
The position of the Russian army before the start of the battle was as follows: the larger and stronger 1st army under the command of Barclay (about 70% of all forces) Kutuzov identified on the right flank, along the shore of Kolocha: its units covered the road to Moscow; Bagration’s army was located on the left flank to the village of Utitsa; The pentagonal redoubt, built in front of the entire position on the left flank near the village of Shevardino, played the role of the forward defensive point.
august, the vanguard of the French attacked the Shevardin redoubt. It prevented the regrouping of French forces and the transfer of their troops from the New Smolensk Road, where the 1st Army was, to bypass the left flank occupied by Bagration's troops. About 30 thousand infantry and 10 thousand cavalry brought down Napoleon for 8 thousand Russian infantry and 4 thousand horsemen. By evening, the French took possession of the fortification, but the Russians attacked them from there with a surprise attack. Only by order of Kutuzov did Russian troops leave their position at midnight. After taking the fortifications, Napoleon was unable to move on (2, p. 489).
The battle of Borodino began on August 26 at half past five in the morning and lasted more than 12 hours. The French began a battle by shooting a regiment of guards rangers on the right flank near the village of Borodina, and an hour later the main blow was dealt to the left flank (Bagrationovye fortifications). The offensive was led by the best French generals - Ney, Davout, Murat and Oudinot, 45 thousand soldiers and 400 guns were concentrated here. (2, p. 490).
The first attack was repelled by Russian troops. Napoleon transferred new forces to the left flank and concentrated all the artillery there. Kutuzov ordered the French to raid the rear in order to divert part of the troops to themselves, enabling Bagration to once again go on the offensive. But, the French attacked all along the front, captured the battery of N.N. Raevsky, and after the eighth attack, occupied the flushes, where Bonaparte installed the guns and in the afternoon began firing at the center of the Russian troops - the Kurgan Battery. But the Russian cavalry (under the command of Platov and Uvarov) went around the left flank of the French, which distracted Napoleon's attention for 2 hours from the battery attack. This made it possible for Kutuzov to tighten reserves and regroup. The battle was fierce and only at four in the afternoon of the day, with losses, did the French take possession of the redoubt on the central hill.
Towards evening, the Russian troops retreated to a new line of defense, and Napoleon, on the contrary, withdrew his troops to the starting lines. The losses on both sides were huge, according to the materials of the Military Scientific Archive of the General Staff of Russia, the Russians lost up to 45.6 thousand people; according to the Archive of the French Ministry of War, the French lost 28 thousand people (2, p. 44).
At a military council held on September 1 in the village of Fili, three miles from Moscow, it was decided to leave Moscow to the enemy in order to preserve the army (4, p. 170).
september, the French army entered Moscow, which left about 6 thousand inhabitants who had nowhere to go. On the same evening, the city was swept by fires (as a result of which three quarters of Moscow was burned), historians and writers still argue about the reasons and culprits: many believe that Russians burned Moscow (Governor F.V. Rostopchin ordered numerous warehouses to be burned and shops and taking out “the whole fire-extinguishing shell”, as well as the residents themselves burned the city so that the enemy would not get anything.
The Battle of Borodino on August 26, 1812 is the only example of a general battle in the history of wars, the outcome of which both sides immediately announced and still celebrate as their victory, with good reason.
The course of the battle developed in favor of Napoleon, who occupied all Russian positions from Borodin on the right to Utitsa on the left, including the reference Kurgan height in the center. And since the Russian army left Moscow, Napoleon considered the Battle of Borodino won, although he could not defeat the Russian army. But the fire of Moscow, put Napoleon from a winning position to a losing one: instead of amenities and contentment, the French were on the ashes.
Kutuzov was forced to sacrifice the city, having done so not by Napoleon’s will, but of his own free will, not because he was defeated, but because he survived and believed in the victorious outcome of the war for Russia. The battle of Borodino was a moral victory for the Russian army, and it was the beginning of the end of the greatness of the French emperor and his army. And General Kutuzov received from Alexander 1 Field Marshal's baton for the Battle of Borodino.
2.4 The end of the war. Tarutin battle
Napoleon’s army, while remaining in Moscow, began to decompose morally: robberies and looting increased, which neither Napoleon nor the governor-general and commandant of the city appointed by him could stop. There was also a problem with food: stocks were coming to an end and were not replenished, peasants from neighboring villages hid food from the enemy.
And Napoleon decided to start peace negotiations: he proposed peace to Alexander I three times, but never received a response from the Russian Tsar, who even expressed his readiness to retreat to Kamchatka and become the “emperor of Kamchadals”, but not put up with Napoleon (2, p. 45 )
Kutuzov by that time had time to prepare for a counterattack. Having created the appearance of a retreat along the Ryazan Road, Kutuzov on September 21 camped near the village of Tarutino (80 km southwest of Moscow). This maneuver allowed Kutuzov to escape the persecution of the French army; control the three southern directions to block Napoleon from reaching the cities with military reserves - Tula, Kaluga and Bryansk.
In Tarutin, the balance of forces changed in favor of the Russians: Kutuzov’s army received a replenishment that more than doubled the strength of the enemy - only 240 thousand people - against 116 thousand from Napoleon (2, p. 46).
october Tarutino battle took place.
Murat from the Ryazan road turned to Podolsk, where he was attacked by Kutuzov near Tarutin. The Russian columns acted inconsistently, and therefore it was not possible to encircle and destroy the French, but forced the French troops to retreat, which was the first victory of the Russian troops in this war.
The defeat of Murat accelerated the retreat of the French army from Moscow and on October 7, Napoleon left Moscow. Napoleon was going to move to Smolensk along the New, Kaluga road, which was not ravaged. But Kutuzov blocked his path at Maloyaroslavets, where on October 12 a fierce battle broke out. Kutuzov’s troops left Maloyaroslavets as soon as they took a comfortable position, retreating 2.5 km to the south, and reliably blocked the enemy’s path to Kaluga.
Thus, forcing Napoleon to make a choice: attack Kutuzov to break into Kaluga or go to Smolensk along a ravaged road through Mozhaysk. Napoleon chose a retreat - for the first time Napoleon himself abandoned the general battle, and moved from the position of the pursuer to the position of the pursued.
But Kutuzov avoided new battles, hoping that the French army itself would come to its death.
october, Napoleon went to Mozhaisk on the Old Smolensk Road, which was a disaster for the Napoleonic army: there was no place to get food without food, everything was ruined; they too had nowhere to turn from it: everywhere death awaited them at the hands of partisans and peasants; small minor skirmishes and battles also caused damage to the French and exhausted them.
Napoleon did not stay in Smolensk, since the main forces of Kutuzov approached Yelnya, and by this time Napoleon’s army numbered about 50 thousand people, about 30 thousand unarmed people were stretching for the army (1, p. 497-498).
After Vyazma, a new enemy fell upon the French - cold: frosts, northerly winds, snowfalls weakened and destroyed the hungry French.
In addition to Kutuzov’s army, regular Russian troops moving across the French from the north (Field Marshal P.Kh. Wittgenstein’s troops) and from the south (Admiral P.V. Chichagov’s Danube Army) also threatened the death of the retreating French army.
november, near Krasny, a three-day battle took place, as a result of which Ney's corps was almost completely destroyed, the enemy lost almost all of the artillery and cavalry. Leaving the battle near Krasnoye, Napoleon went through Orsha to Borisov, where he intended to cross the Berezina.
It was here that Kutuzov predicted "imminent extermination of the entire French army" (2, p. 47). According to Kutuzov’s plan, the three Russian armies (Wittgenstein, Chichagov and the commander in chief) were to surround Napoleon, who was retreating, and, not allowing him to cross to the right bank of the Berezina, defeat him.
Napoleon was in a catastrophic situation, especially since the Berezina River, after a two-day thaw, opened, and a strong ice drift prevented the construction of bridges. But with a feigned maneuver, Napoleon tried to make the crossing 12 miles above Borisov.
After Berezina, the retreat of the remains of the French army was an erratic escape. About 20-30 thousand French crossed the Russian border - this is all that remains of the 600 thousandth army, which launched an invasion of our land in June. Napoleon, his entire guard, the officer corps, the generals and all the marshals survived. On November 21 in Molodechno he drew up a “funeral”, as the French themselves would call him, the 29th bulletin - a kind of gravestone about the “Great Army”, where he admitted defeat, explaining it by the vicissitudes of the Russian winter.
december 1812, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the end of World War II.
3. The consequences of the war of 1812
The crushing defeat in Russia, which suffered the "invincible" Napoleon, excited the whole world. No one expected such an outcome. The Russians themselves were shocked by their victory.
The grand victory had enormous consequences for Russia internationally: it destroyed the Napoleonic plans for world domination, laid the foundation for the liberation of Europe from Napoleon; highly raised the prestige of Russia, having won from France its leading position on the world stage.
The historical significance of the war of 1812 was that it raised a new surge of patriotic feelings among all segments of the population - peasants, townspeople, soldiers. The fight against the cruel enemy prompted people to see in a new light. The victory caused a rapid growth of national identity and sent the best people of the nation to a liberation struggle against autocracy and serfdom. The initiators of this struggle, the Decembrists, directly called themselves "children of 1812." Of these, about a third directly participated in the hostilities of the 1812 war.
In addition, the war of 1812 gave impetus to the development of Russian culture. Patriotic feelings, the bitterness of loss and the valor of soldiers pushed Russian people to create wonderful poems, songs, novels and articles.
Poets and writers, painters and sculptors colorfully described and brought to life the paintings of battles, exploits of the Russian people.
And Kutuzov’s flexible strategy raised Russian military art to a new stage of development.
Conclusion
Thus, in accordance with the purpose and objectives of our essay, having examined the main aspects of the war of 1812, we come to the following conclusions:
The Patriotic War of 1812 is one of the most outstanding events in the history of our country. The heroic struggle of the Russian people against Napoleon led his army to defeat, from which the sunset of Napoleonic power in Europe began.
In addition, existing studies on the war of 1812 indicate that this war was not only of pan-European, but also global significance: the clash of two major powers - Russia and France - involved other independent European states in the war and led to the creation of a new systems of international relations.
The main reasons for the outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 were: the desire of the French bourgeoisie to world domination; political contradictions between Russia and France; economic difficulties that arose during the forced participation in the continental blockade.
The Russian victory had enormous consequences for Russia internationally: it destroyed the Napoleonic plans for world domination and laid the foundation for the liberation of Europe from Napoleon; highly raised the prestige of Russia, having won from France its leading position on the world stage.
The victory caused a rapid growth of national identity and sent the best people of the nation to a liberation struggle against autocracy and serfdom; gave an impetus to the development of Russian culture; raised Russian military art to a new stage of development.
List of references
1.Zaichkin I.A., Pochkaev I.N. Russian history From Catherine the Great to Alexander II. - M.: Thought, 1994 .-- 765 p.
Patriotic War of 1812
The causes and nature of the war. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the largest event in Russian history. Its occurrence was caused by the desire of Napoleon to achieve world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Tilsit Treaty, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon's particular irritation was caused by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops, created military depots there. A threat of invasion looms over the borders of Russia. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.
In a military conflict between the two sides, Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became liberating, Patriotic. It was attended not only by the cadre army, but also by the broad masses of the people.
The balance of power. Preparing for war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. These were perfectly armed and trained troops, hardened in previous wars. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Dawu, L. Bertier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of the time, "Napoleon Bonaparte. His colorful national composition was a vulnerable place in his army. German and Spanish , Polish and Portuguese, Austrian and Italian soldiers were deeply alien to the aggressive plans of the French bourgeoisie.
The active preparations for the war that Russia waged in 1810 brought its results. She managed to create the modern armed forces of that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders M.I. Kutuzov, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, P.I. Bagration, A.P. Ermolov, N.N. Raevsky, M.A. Miloradovich and others. They were distinguished by great military experience and personal courage. The advantage of the Russian army was determined by the patriotic enthusiasm of all segments of the population, large human resources, food supplies and fodder.
However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army was numerically superior to the Russian. The first echelon of troops that entered the borders of Russia totaled 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 320 thousand people, divided into three armies. 1st - under the command of MB Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, 3rd - General A.P. Tormasov - was located in a southerly direction.
Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to capture a significant part of Russian territory right up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander in order to subjugate Russia. Napoleon’s strategic plan rested on his military experience gained during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent dispersed Russian forces from uniting and decide the outcome of the war in one or more border battles.
The Russian emperor and his entourage, on the eve of the war, decided not to compromise with Napoleon. With a successful outcome of the clash, they were going to transfer hostilities to the territory of Western Europe. In the event of a defeat, Alexander was ready to retreat to Siberia (up to Kamchatka, as he said) in order to continue the struggle from there. Russia had several strategic military plans. One of them was developed by the Prussian general Ful. It provided for the concentration of most of the Russian army in a fortified camp near the city of Drissa in the Western Dvina. According to Ful, this gave an advantage in the first border battle. The project remained unrealized, as the position on Drissa was unprofitable, and the fortifications were weak. In addition, the balance of power forced the Russian command to choose an active defense strategy, i.e. retreat with rearguard battles deep into the territory of Russia. As the course of the war showed, this was the most correct decision.
The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia with a forced march.
The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, dodging the general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual parts of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him. The two main tasks confronting the Russian troops were to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be broken apart) and establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies were united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's initial plan was disrupted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander of the Russian Army. This meant a solution to the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to seek a position for the general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.
Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and in accordance with this, deployed his troops, the left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. An earthen mound was poured in the center, where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky. Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.
Napoleon followed offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, surround it and finally defeat it.
Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The battle for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. was seriously wounded. Bagration. (A few days later he died of his wounds.) The capture of the flushes did not bring the French much advantage, since they failed to break through the left flank. The Russians organizedly retreated and took a position at the Semenovsky ravine.
At the same time, the situation in the center was complicated, where Napoleon sent the main blow. To help the troops of General N.N. Raevsky M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks M.I. Platov and the horse corps F.P. Uvarova raid behind the French. Napoleon was forced to interrupt the assault on the battery for almost 2 hours. This allowed M.I. Kutuzov pull fresh forces to the center. Battery N.N. Raevsky changed hands several times and was captured by the French only at 4 pm.
The capture of Russian fortifications did not mean the victory of Napoleon. On the contrary, the offensive impulse of the French army ran out. She needed fresh strength, but Napoleon did not dare to use his last reserve - the imperial guard. The battle, which lasted more than 12 hours, gradually subsided. The losses on both sides were huge. Borodino was the moral and political victory of the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, the Napoleonic - significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore.
From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, the Russian war began a retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not seek a new battle. September 1 hosted the military council of the Russian command in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.
M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out the original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned abruptly to the south and in the area of \u200b\u200bKrasnaya Pakhra reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the capture of the Kaluga and Tula provinces by the French, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from the army of Napoleon. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested, replenished with fresh regular units, militias, weapons and food supplies.
The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Left by the inhabitants (an unprecedented event in history), it blazed in the fire of fires. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and looters. Its decomposition was so strong that Napoleon had only two options - either immediately make peace, or start a retreat. But all the peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander.
On October 7, the French left Moscow. Napoleon still hoped to defeat the Russians, or at least break into the unreached southern regions, since the question of providing the army with food and fodder was very acute. He moved his troops to Kaluga. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. And again, neither one nor the other side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road.
The expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army was like a random flight. He was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russian troops.
The patriotic rise began literally immediately after the entry of Napoleon into Russia. The robberies and looting of French soldiers provoked resistance from local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders in their native land. The history includes the names of ordinary people (A.N. Seslavin, G.M. Kurin, E.V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina) who organized partisan detachments. The "flying detachments" of regular army soldiers led by regular officers were also sent to the rear of the French.
At the final stage of the war M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He was the shore of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near Borisov. For this purpose, troops were being drawn from the south and northwest. Serious damage was done to the French near Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50,000 people in the retreating army were captured or fell in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to ferry his troops November 14-17 across the Berezina River. The battle at the crossing completed the rout of the French army. Napoleon left her and secretly left for Paris. Order M.I. Kutuzov’s army on December 21 and the Tsar’s manifest on December 25, 1812 marked the end of World War II.
The meaning of war. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the greatest event in Russian History. In its course, heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love of all walks of life and especially ordinary people to their own people were clearly manifested. Homeland. However, the war caused significant damage to the Russian economy, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. Killed about 2 million people. Many western regions of the country were ravaged. All this had a huge impact on the further internal development of Russia.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Social structure population.
Agricultural development.
The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.
The development of water and highway routes. The beginning of railway construction.
The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of the Alexander's Day are a great beginning."
The peasant question. The decree "on free cultivators." Government measures in the field of education. State activity M.M.Speransky and his plan of state transformations. Creation of the Council of State.
Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Tilsit Peace Treaty.
World War 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. The reasons and the beginning of the war. The balance of power and the military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I. Kutuzov. Stages of war. The results and significance of the war.
Overseas campaigns 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy union.
The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825 Strengthening conservative sentiment in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevschina. Military settlements.
Foreign policy tsarism in the first quarter of the XIX century.
The first secret organizations of the Decembrists are the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are the Russian Truth by P.I. Pestel and the Constitution of N.M. Muravyov. The death of Alexander I. Interregnum. The uprising of December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernihiv regiment. The investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The meaning of the Decembrist uprising.
The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening the autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship Charter. The era of censorship terror.
Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On obliged peasants."
Polish uprising of 1830-1831
The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.
Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 The problem of straits in the foreign policy of Russia 30-40-ies of the XIX century.
Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.
Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. The reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. The defeat of Russia in the war. The Paris world of 1856. International and domestic consequences of war.
The accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
The formation of the state (imamat) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. The significance of the accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the XIX century.
The formation of government ideology. Theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.
Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical writing" P.Ya. Chaadaeva. Westerners. Moderate. The radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.
Socio-economic and political background of the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.
Peasant reform. Reform preparation. "Position" February 19, 1861. Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotted. Ransom. The duties of the peasants. Temporarily liable condition.
Zemsky, judicial, city reforms. Financial reforms. Education Reforms. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The importance of bourgeois reform.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.
Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages of development of capitalism in industry.
The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.
Social movement in Russia of the 50-60s of the XIX century
Social movement in Russia 70-90-ies of the XIX century.
The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.
"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". The assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "People’s Will."
Labor movement in the second half of the XIX century. Strike struggle. The first working organizations. The emergence of a working question. Factory legislation.
Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. The Emancipation of Labor Group (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.
Petersburg "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism."
The political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counterreforms.
Alexander III. The manifesto of the "inviolability" of the autocracy (1881). Counter-Reform Policy. The results and significance of the counter-reforms.
The international situation of Russia after the Crimean War. Change in the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of the foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of the Three Emperors.
Russia and the eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy on the eastern issue. The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: reasons, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.
Russian foreign policy in the 80-90s of the XIX century. The formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russian relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French Union (1891-1894).
- Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the XVII - XIX centuries. . - M .: Education, 1996.
Already in Moscow, that this war would not turn out to be a brilliant victory for him, but a shameful flight from Of Russia distraught with horror from the soldiers of his once great army, which conquered all of Europe? In 1807, after the defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the French near Friedland, Emperor Alexander I was forced to sign the unprofitable and humiliating Tilsit peace treaty with Napoleon. At that moment, no one thought that in a few years the Russian troops would drive the Napoleonic army to Paris, and Russia would occupy a leading position in European politics.
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Reasons and course of the Patriotic War of 1812
Main reasons
- Violation by both Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit treaty. Russia sabotaged the unfavorable continental blockade of England. France in violation of the treaty deployed troops in Prussia, annexing the Duchy of Oldenburg.
- The policy towards European states pursued by Napoleon without taking into account the interests of Russia.
- An indirect reason can also be considered that Bonaparte twice made attempts to marry the sisters of Alexander the First, but both times he was refused.
Since 1810, both sides are actively leading training to war, accumulating military forces.
The beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
Who, if not Bonaparte, who conquered Europe, could be sure of his blitzkrieg? Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army in the border battles. Early in the morning of June 24, 1812, the Great French Army crossed the Russian border in four places.
The northern flank under the command of Marshal MacDonald spoke in the direction of Riga - St. Petersburg. Main a group of troops under the command of Napoleon himself advanced towards Smolensk. South of the main forces, the offensive was developed by the corps of the stepson of Napoleon, Eugene Beauharnais. The corps of the Austrian general Karl Schwarzenberg was advancing in the Kiev direction.
After crossing the border, Napoleon was unable to maintain a high rate of advance. Not only huge Russian distances and famous Russian roads were to blame. The local population rendered the French army a slightly different reception than in Europe. Sabotage food supplies from the occupied territories became the most massive form of resistance to the invaders, but, of course, only a regular army could provide them with serious resistance.
Before joining Moscow the French army had to participate in nine major battles. IN a large number battles and armed clashes. Even before the occupation of Smolensk, the Great Army lost 100 thousand soldiers, but, in general, the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 was extremely unsuccessful for the Russian army.
On the eve of the invasion of the Napoleonic army, Russian troops were dispersed in three places. The first army of Barclay de Tolly was near Vilna, the second army of Bagration was near Volokovysk, and the third army of Tormasov was in Volyn. Strategy Napoleon was to defeat the Russian armies separately. Russian troops begin to retreat.
Through the efforts of the so-called Russian party, instead of Barclay de Tolly, MI Kutuzov was appointed to the post of commander in chief, who was sympathized with by many generals with Russian surnames. The retreat strategy was not popular in Russian society.
However, Kutuzov continued to adhere to tactics the retreat selected by Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon sought to impose on the Russian army the main, general battle as soon as possible.
The main battles of the Patriotic War of 1812
Bloody battle for Smolensk became a rehearsal of the general battle. Bonaparte, hoping that the Russians will concentrate all their forces here, prepares the main blow, and pulls the 185 thousandth army to the city. Despite the objections of Bagration, Bucklay de Tolly decides to leave Smolensk. The French, having lost more than 20 thousand people in battle, entered a flaming and ruined city. The Russian army, despite the surrender of Smolensk, retained its combat effectiveness.
News about surrender of Smolensk overtook Kutuzov near Vyazma. In the meantime, Napoleon advanced his army towards Moscow. Kutuzov was in a very serious situation. He continued the retreat, but before leaving Moscow, Kutuzov had to give a general battle. The prolonged retreat made a depressing impression on the Russian soldiers. Everyone was full of desire to give a decisive battle. When Moscow had a little more than a hundred miles, on the field near the village of Borodino, the Great Army collided, as Bonaparte himself later admitted, with the Invincible Army.
Before the battle, Russian troops totaled 120 thousand, the French were 135 thousand. On the left flank of the construction of Russian troops were Semyonovsky flushes and units of the second army Bagration. On the right are the battle formations of the first army of Barclay de Tolly, and the third infantry corps of General Tuchkov covered the old Smolensk road.
At dawn, September 7, Napoleon inspected the positions. At seven in the morning, the French batteries signaled the start of the battle.
Major General Grenadiers took the brunt of the first strike Vorontsova and 27th infantry division Nemerovsky at the village of Semenovskaya. The French broke into Semenov’s flushes several times, but under the pressure of the Russian counterattacks left them. Bagration was mortally wounded here during the main counterattack. As a result, the French managed to capture the flushes, but they did not get any advantages. They failed to break through the left flank, and the Russians organizedly retreated to the Semyonovsky ravines, taking a position there.
A difficult situation developed in the center, where Bonaparte's main blow was directed, where the battery fought desperately Raevsky. To break the resistance of the battery defenders, Napoleon was ready to enter his main reserve into battle. But this was prevented by the Cossacks of Platov and the cavalrymen of Uvarov, who, by order of Kutuzov, made a swift raid into the rear of the left flank of the French. This stopped the French attack on Raevsky’s battery for about two hours, which allowed the Russians to tighten some reserves.
After bloody battles, the Russians organizedly moved away from Raevsky’s battery, and again took up the defense. The battle, which had been going on for twelve hours, gradually subsided.
During Battle of Borodino Russians lost almost half of their personnel, but continued to hold positions. The Russian army lost twenty-seven of the best generals, four of them died and twenty-three were wounded. The French lost about thirty thousand soldiers. Of the thirty out-of-order French generals, eight died.
Brief results of the battle of Borodino:
- Napoleon could not defeat the Russian army and achieve the complete surrender of Russia.
- Kutuzov, although greatly weakened Bonaparte's army, could not defend Moscow.
Despite the fact that the Russians were formally unable to win, the Borodino field forever remained in Russian history a field of Russian glory.
Having received information about the losses near Borodin, Kutuzov I realized that the second battle would be disastrous for the Russian army, and Moscow would have to leave. At a military council in Fili, Kutuzov insisted on the surrender of Moscow without a fight, although many generals were against it.
September 14, the Russian army left To Moscow. The emperor of Europe, observing from Poklonnaya Gora the magnificent panorama of Moscow, was waiting for the city delegation with the keys to the city. After military hardships and hardships, Bonaparte soldiers found in the abandoned city long-awaited warm apartments, food and valuables that Muscovites had not had time to take out, who for the most part left the city with the army.
After rampant robberies and looting fires started in Moscow. Due to dry and windy weather, the whole city flared up. Napoleon, for security reasons, was forced to move from the Kremlin to the Petrovsky Palace in the country, on the way, lost his way, almost burned himself.
Bonaparte allowed the soldiers of his army to rob what was still not burned. The French army was distinguished by defiant disregard for the local population. Marshal Davout set up his bedroom at the altar of the Archangel temple. Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin the French used the stable, and in Arkhangelsk organized army cuisine. The oldest St. Danilov Monastery in Moscow was equipped for cattle slaughter.
Such behavior of the French to the depths of their souls outraged the entire Russian people. All burned with vengeance for the desecrated shrines and the desecration of the Russian land. Now the war has finally acquired character and content domestic.
The expulsion of the French from Russia and the end of the war
Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, committed maneuverthanks to which the French army lost the initiative by the end of the war. The Russians, retreating along the Ryazan road, were able to march to the old Kaluga road, and secured themselves near the village of Tarutino, from where they were able to control all directions leading from Moscow to the south, through Kaluga.
Kutuzov foresaw that kaluga land unaffected by war, Bonaparte will begin a retreat. All the while Napoleon was in Moscow, the Russian army was replenished with fresh reserves. On October 18, near the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov attacked the French units of Marshal Murat. As a result of the battle, the French lost more than four thousand people, and retreated. Russian losses amounted to about one and a half thousand.
Bonaparte realized the futility of his expectations of a peace treaty, and the very next day after the battle of Tarutino hastily left Moscow. The great army now resembled a barbarian horde with looted property. Having made difficult maneuvers on the march to Kaluga, the French entered Maloyaroslavets. On October 24, Russian troops decided to drive the French out of the city. Maloyaroslavets as a result of a stubborn battle, he changed hands eight times.
This battle was a turning point in the history of the Patriotic War of 1812. The French had to retreat along the same ruined old Smolensk road. Now the Great Army once considered victories for its successful retreats. Russian troops used parallel pursuit tactics. After the battle of Vyazma, and especially after the battle at the village of Krasny, where the losses of Bonaparte’s army were comparable to those of Borodino, the effectiveness of such tactics became evident.
The territories occupied by the French actively partisans. Bearded peasants, armed with pitchforks and axes, suddenly appearing from the forest, which made the French numb. The elements of the people's war captured not only the peasants, but also all the classes of Russian society. Kutuzov himself sent his son-in-law, Prince Kudashev, who led one of the detachments, to the partisans.
The last and decisive blow was dealt to Napoleon’s army at the crossing berezina River. Many Western historians consider the Berezina operation almost a triumph of Napoleon, who managed to save the Great Army, or rather, its remains. About 9 thousand French soldiers were able to cross Berezina.
Napoleon, who, in fact, did not lose a single battle in Russia, lost the campaign. The great army ceased to exist.
The results of the Patriotic War of 1812
- In the vastness of Russia, the French army was almost completely destroyed, which affected the balance of power in Europe.
- The self-awareness of all layers of Russian society has unusually intensified.
- Having emerged victorious from the war, Russia strengthened its position in the geopolitical arena.
- The national liberation movement in the European countries conquered by Napoleon intensified.